Anti-Sufism in Early Qajar Iran : Āqā Muḥammad ‘Alī Bihbahānī (1732–1801) and His Risāla-yi khayrātiyya
With the revival of the Ni‘matullāhī Order in late eighteenth-century Iran, the confrontation between uṣūlī ‘ulamā’ and Sufis gained new momentum. While the relationship between official Iranian Shiism and organized Sufism had been strained since the rise of the Safavids, the firm establishment of uṣūlism among Shii ‘ulamā’ and the Sufi revival in the late eighteenth century initiated a polemical
