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How difficult can it be to implement a PID controller? The answer is twofold. Implementing the PID control law is simple and computationally inexpensive. However, this basic form will not work in practical applications. The primary reason for this is the various physical limitations of the actuator. Measurement noise, different implementations depending on the various structures (P, PI, PD or PID)
Tiden tas ofta för given. Men de sätt på vilka den uppfattas och uttrycks är aldrig neutrala eller förutbestämda – de är resultatet av specifika erfarenheter, kunskaper och önskningar. Mot bakgrund av konkurrerande värderingar och förväntningar på den boreala skogen i ljuset av klimatförändringar och resurspåfrestningar undersöker denna avhandling hur förståelser, erfarenheter och tolkningar av tiTime is often taken for granted. However, the ways in which it is perceived and expressed are never neutral or pre-given - they are the result of particular experiences, knowledges and desires. In the context of competing values and expectations for the boreal forest in the face of climate change and resource pressures, this thesis investigates how understandings, experiences and framings of time
Understanding ecosystem water fluxes has gained increasing attention, as climate scenarios predict a drier environment for many parts of the world. Evaporative enrichment of 18O (Δ18O) of leaf water and subsequent enrichment of plant organic matter can be used to characterize environmental and physiological factors that control evaporation, based on a recently established mechanistic model. In a P
Due to its drought sensitivity, the performance and competitiveness of beech as a favoured species of forest management in Central Europe is likely to be negatively affected by the prognosticated climate change, leading to major impacts on the vulnerability of managed forest ecosystems. We studied the genetic differentiation between two populations from a relatively cold and wet northeast (represe
The carbon ( 13C) and oxygen ( 18O) stable isotope composition is widely used to obtain information on the linkages between environmental drivers and tree physiology over various time scales. The tree-ring archive can especially be exploited to reconstruct inter- and intra-annual variation of both climate and physiology. There is, however, a lack of information on the processes potentially affecti
The 13C isotopic signature (C stable isotope ratio; δ13C) of CO2 respired from forest ecosystems and their particular compartments are known to be influenced by temporal changes in environmental conditions affecting C isotope fractionation during photosynthesis. Whereas most studies have assessed temporal variation in δ13C of ecosystem-respired CO2 on a day-to-day scale, not much information is av
Regional climate models predict an intensification of extreme heat waves in Central Europe. Against this background, the significance of human-biometeorologically orientated urban planning strategies is increasing by which the impairment of thermal comfort for people in cities in the future can be minimised. Such strategies require quantitative information on factors determining human thermal comf
Nitrogen (N) cycling in terrestrial ecosystems is complex since it involves the closely interwoven processes of both N uptake by plants and microbial turnover of a variety of N metabolites. Major interactions between plants and microorganisms involve competition for the same N species, provision of plant nutrients by microorganisms and labile carbon (C) supply to microorganisms by plants via root
Plant growth, reproduction, and biomass allocation may be affected differently by nitrogen availability depending on tree size and age. In this context, competition for limited N may be avoided by different strategies of N acquisition between different vegetation components (i.e., seedlings, mature trees, other woody and herbaceous understorey). This study investigated in a field experiment whethe
Economic activities and everyday life may create weekly variations in concentrations of air pollutants in urban settings. The present study contributes to this experience on the example of two typical medium-sized towns in Central Europe, Szeged and Freiburg considering the following air pollutants: NO, NO2, O3, Ox and PM10. Five-year data sets of hourly observations (1997-2001) collected in downt
This article examines the role of private defence investment as part of the efforts to define the scope and meaning of EU social sustainability, at a time of increased EU investment interest in the aerospace and defence industry (A&D). One of the central questions posed by private investors, civil society and international legal scholars alike is, in fact, whether investment in the production
ABSTRACT The efficacy of cryosurgery for skin cancers is believed to depend on thaw time, which may be influenced by the presence of adrenaline in local anaesthetics due to its vasoconstrictive effects. This is the first study to perform detailed, non-invasive temperature measurements using infrared (IR) thermography during cryosurgery for basal cell carcinomas (BCCs), evaluating the impact of adr
Africa's historical borderlands are persistently associated with low levels of economic development. This paper examines how these regions respond to development interventions, analysing whether the long-run development advantage associated with colonial Christian missions persists near historical homeland borders. Combining georeferenced data on 3,365 pioneering mission stations with high-resolut
BACKGROUND: Current diagnostic criteria for postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) require history of orthostatic intolerance and heart rate elevation of ≥30 bpm in adults or ≥40 bpm in adolescents during a 10-minute standing or a tilt table test. Many patients with orthostatic intolerance experience autonomic dysfunction and functional impairment despite not meeting the required heart r
Despite the prevalence of slavery in world history, our understanding of its persistence remains limited. Most previous studies focus primarily on slavery as a labour contract, indistinguishable from other coercive arrangements such as serfdom. More recent literature on slavery in the United States shows that enslaved people also played an important role as financial instruments. In this article,
The economic history of British colonialism in Southern Africa is defined by three interrelated dynamics: the initial expansion driven by chartered companies, a substantial influx of European settlers, and the establishment of racially segregated, unequal Neo-European societies. In this chapter, we show how the discovery of minerals in the nineteenth century radically reshaped the economic and soc
Understanding the determinants that influence parents’ decisions to participate with their infants in primary prevention trials is essential for achieving representative study samples and ensuring the generalizability of outcomes. We analyzed quantitative and qualitative data collected from infants eligible for the Primary Oral Insulin Trial (N= 2,750) or the Supplementation with B. INfantis for M
The Sloan Digital Sky Survey-V (SDSS-V) Magellanic Genesis Survey is a spectroscopic program designed to map the kinematic and chemical structure of the Magellanic Clouds (MCs) using APOGEE and BOSS spectroscopy. This overview describes the survey’s design, target selection, and science goals and highlights some first results using these data. In the inner regions of the Large and Small Magellanic
Protest and activism are endemic and potent features of many nations’ political life and critical potential counters to democratic backsliding and authoritarianism. In this review article, we meta-analytically examine six decades of research findings on what explains participation, focusing particularly on two well-studied protest forms: marches and demonstrations. Focusing on these iconic and com
